Answers for a most common questions

The Controlled Substances Act was passed in 1970 to help the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) enforce drugs which could pose a risk to society if used improperly. Under the CSA, a controlled substance is any drug with a potential for abuse;drugs which do not pose an addiction risk are not regulated by the CSA, although they are by other agencies. The CSA was one of the early building blocks in the “war on drugs,” as it gave a law enforcement agency specific powers when it came to the issue of drug abuse.

Under the CSA, a controlled substance falls into one of five schedules, depending on how addictive it is. Drugs are also grouped in five classes: narcotics, depressants, stimulants, anabolic steroids, and hallucinogens are all regulated under the CSA. The DEA also monitors the growth, sale, and use of Cannabis sativa, or marijuana. When a new drug is released on the market, part of the testing involves a determination of how potentially addictive it is, so that it can be classified and regulated under the CSA, if necessary. A drug which is listed as a controlled substance has to be handled with care in a clinical environment, and usually requires a prescription for use outside a clinic.

The schedule that a controlled substance falls into depends upon how addictive it is. Schedule I drugs are defined as drugs which the DEA has determined have no valid medical use, in addition to a high potential for addiction. Examples include heroin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and many other hallucinogens. A schedule II drug is a drug with a high potential for addiction, but a valid medical use, such as some opiates, methadone, morphine, and amphetamine. A schedule III controlled substance has a low to moderate potential for drug addiction, and this category includes combined narcotics such as Tylenol-Codeine, along with steroids. Schedule IV drugs have a much lower addiction potential relative to the other schedules, and include benzodiazepines and mild narcotics. At the bottom of the scale, a schedule V controlled substance has the lowest potential for addiction.

The narcotics class of controlled substances primarily includes opiates. These drugs are used for therapeutic pain relief, but many also have a high potential for addiction. Most are schedule II or III drugs, due to the risk of addiction, and they are heavily regulated by the government. The next class, depressants, is used to relieve tension, address sleep issues, and provide sedation. Depressants can be extremely hazardous to the health, as many also have effects on the central nervous system. Barbiturates and benzodiazepines are both considered depressants.

Stimulants are used therapeutically for a number of purposes, including weight loss, attention deficit disorders, and to treat narcolepsy. Amphetamines and other similar drugs are considered a controlled substance under this class: users can experience a state of euphoria which is highly addictive. Anabolic steroids are also considered a controlled substance, due to the high potential for abuse. This drug abuse is growing in the United States, especially among youth. While steroids do have medical value, they are also heavily abused as performance enhancers by athletes at all levels of skill and competition.

The final class of controlled substances, hallucinogens, includes drugs that have the potential to alter the mind. Hallucinogens induce a state of euphoria which is often accompanied by visual, auditory, and tactile hallucinations. Most of these drugs are lumped under schedule I, because they have no valid medical use, although ketamine is licensed for use in animals and in emergency situations for humans. Other hallucinogens include acid, toxic mushrooms, and Ecstasy.

Honolulu, Hawaii has the least amount of fluctuation in barometric pressure changes in the United States. Although places like Denver, CO may consistently have low pressure, they may also have a greater range of pressure changes. Honolulu’s pressure changes range from 29.34 to 30.32 inches in mercury (993.56 to 1026.75 millibars).

Barometric pressure, also known as air pressure, measures the weight of the air and is affected by many factors. The planet’s gravity consistently weighs down the air, but the temperature, altitude, weather and air density all contribute to pressure changes. Air pressure decreases as altitude increases, due to less dense air and less mass pushing down from above.

Low pressure means that there is less “weight” pushing down. It also indicates that the air is rising and cooling, which helps to form clouds. High pressure means that there is more weight and indicates the presence of sinking air that is warming and has lower humidity. Pressure at higher altitudes is corrected to what it would be at sea level in order to provide a uniform reading.

In the United States, air pressure and pressure changes are recorded in “inches in mercury,” the number of inches that the air pressure forces mercury up a sealed tube. The average air pressure is 29.92 inches in mercury (1013.2 millibars), but dramatic fluctuations in pressure changes have been recorded. The highest air pressure ever recorded in the US was 31.85 inches in mercury (1078.56 millibars) in January 1989 in the city of Northway, Alaska. The lowest air pressure recorded was 26.35 inches in mercury (892.3 millibars) in Key West, Florida.

On the mainland, San Diego, California experiences the least amount of pressure changes. Its barometric pressure ranges from 29.37 to 30.53 inches in mercury (994.58 to 1033.86 millibars). As for the places with the highest number of pressure changes, St. Paul, Alaska ranges from 27.35 to 30.86 inches in mercury (926.17 to 1045.03 millibars). In the lower 48, Charleston, South Carolina has the highest pressure changes, with a 27.64 to 30.85 inches in mercury (935.99 to 1044.70 millibars) range.

The Conventions of a number of the States having, at the time of adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added, and as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government will best insure the beneficent ends of its institution;

Resolved, by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, two-thirds of both Houses concurring, that the following articles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several States, as amendments to the Constitution of the United States; all or any of which articles, when ratified by three-fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all intents and purposes as part of the said Constitution, namely:

Amendment I: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment II: A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

Amendment III: No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment IV: The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment V: No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Amendment VI: In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.

Amendment VII: In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Amendment VIII: Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment IX: The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Amendment X: The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

The North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) is an organization which is responsible for promoting the safety and sovereignty of North America. It is a binational command, including both Canadian and American representatives who protect the mutual interests of these nations. The organization is sometimes known colloquially as “Cheyenne Mountain,” in a reference to the command center at Peterson Air Force Base in Colorado.

The groundwork for NORAD was laid in the Second World War, when American and Canadian leaders met and expressed an interest in information and patrol sharing responsibilities. Since both nations were allies and both presumably had a vested interest in not being invaded, a cooperative effort was logical. After the Second World War, concerns about the growing Soviet threat led to a desire for a more coordinated and centralized cooperation, and NORAD was born in 1958 as the North American Air Defense Command.

By convention, the NORAD Commander is American, and he or she is also in charge of the United States Northern Command. The deputy commander is Canadian, and each is answerable to both governments. The United States Air Force manages day to day operations in Cheyenne Mountain, and support for NORAD is also provided by Canadian military personnel.

NORAD has a variety of functions. The most obvious is the identification and assessment of potential airborne threats, such as missile launches. NORAD also administers warning systems throughout the United States and Canada, and it monitors air traffic over North America. NORAD is authorized to respond to credible threats to the United States, and it maintains an insulated bunker at the command center for use in the event of a major aerospace attack.

The central command of NORAD collects data from across North America, supported by bases in Manitoba, Florida, and Alaska. Like other military organizations, NORAD is constantly evolving to respond to new threats and global issues. For example, the organization places less focus on concerns about missile attacks than it did during the Cold War, and more energy is spent monitoring air traffic to avoid a repeat of 11 September, 2001, in which four commercial airliners were hijacked and used as bombs.

Because NORAD employees are responsible for the safety and security of the North American continent, they undergo stringent background checks. Employees are selected from the Canadian Forces Air Command and the United States Air Force. These employees are also responsible, incidentally, for tracking Santa Claus every December, with the assistance of a large network of civilian volunteers.

Though some baby names, such as Emily, Katherine, and Benjamin have been popular and common for hundreds of years, many of the most popular names for children in the United States today have gained prominence only in recent years. Many of the current most popular names feature unique spellings, or are gender-neutral, meaning that they can be used for either a boy or a girl.

In the Social Security Administration's list of the most popular names for 2006, many of the names in the top ten were names that had been popular for generations, such as Emma, Emily, Samantha, Michael, Matthew, Anthony, and Christopher. However, farther down on the list of the most popular names for children, more creative and original names appeared, such as Kaley, which was number 41 for girls; Avery, 66 for girls; Aiden, 49 for boys; and Mason, 42 for boys.

Names of Biblical origin, such as Mary, Jacob, and Joseph, are still among the most popular names for children of both genders, as they have been for hundreds of years. Recently, the name Nevaeh has also become popular among Christian families — the 70th most popular girl's name is a reversal of the word "heaven." The United States' large Latino community is also evident in today's most popular baby names, with common Spanish names like Juan, Angel, and Jose appearing on the most popular boys' name list.

Unusual spellings have also become common in many of today's most popular names, particularly for girls' names. Some of the most popular names on the list include Kaitlyn, Kaylee, and Katelyn. For the top ten boys' names, there were 86 spelling variations. For the most popular girls' names, there were 163 different forms of spelling. Some of the most popular names that can be used for either a boy or girl baby are Taylor, Morgan, and Riley.

Among modern celebrities, it has become a trend to pick extremely unusual names for babies. Actor Nicolas Cage named his son Kal-el, after the birth name of comic book superhero, Superman, while magician Penn Jillette named his daughter Moxie CrimeFighter.

The history of the American postal service is a long one, riddled with many ups and downs caused by wars, economical fallouts, and government changes. The first postage stamps were created in 1840 in Great Britain, and became an instant success. Despite this, it wasn't until 1845 that the United States approved its first postage stamps, although they were not for common usage.

This meant that each local postmaster had to design its own stamp as they saw fit, resulting in a variety of paid systems, from prepaid envelopes to crude drawings bearing the local postmaster's signature. The Government did, however, established the general price of five cents per stamp for any letter traveling less than 310 miles (499 km).

The first postage stamps issued were confined to the East Coast. Virginia, Maryland, Vermont, New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut started the trend, with a few other states following close behind. Those first postage stamps had a fixed price, as there was little chance anybody would send a letter beyond the Eastern Coast settlements. Overseas stamps were not available at the time, and would not be for several decades. All mail traveling in ships to other countries did not need an official stamp to be delivered.

The first postage stamps officially issued didn't come until 1947, when the Federal Government signed a contract with the printing firm of Rawdon, Wright, Hatch, and Edson to produce an official design. While the five-cent stamp remained in existence, the government also introduced a 10-cent design. The five-cent became a standardized design, with a picture of Benjamin Franklin on a red background, while the 10-cent stamp showed George Washington.

By 1951, the Government had decided to drop postage prices, which lead to the creation of the first postage stamps of a 1-cent denomination. These first postage stamps retained the photo of Benjamin Franklin, but switched the design to an all-blue color. Three-cent and twelve-cent stamps were also introduced at the time. Those first postage stamps, especially the one-cent, have become extremely popular among philatelists, with some variations of the stamp reaching as much as $200,000 US Dollars in auctions.

Washington, 4 March 1805

Proceeding, fellow-citizens, to that qualification which the Constitution requires before my entrance on the charge again conferred on me, it is my duty to express the deep sense I entertain of this new proof of confidence from my fellow-citizens at large, and the zeal with which it inspires me so to conduct myself as may best satisfy their just expectations.

On taking this station on a former occasion I declared the principles on which I believed it my duty to administer the affairs of our Commonwealth. My conscience tells me I have on every occasion acted up to that declaration according to its obvious import and to the understanding of every candid mind.

In the transaction of your foreign affairs we have endeavored to cultivate the friendship of all nations, and especially of those with which we have the most important relations. We have done them justice on all occasions, favored where favor was lawful, and cherished mutual interests and intercourse on fair and equal terms. We are firmly convinced, and we act on that conviction, that with nations as with individuals our interests soundly calculated will ever be found inseparable from our moral duties, and historybears witness to the fact that a just nation is trusted on its word when recourse is had to armaments and wars to bridle others.

At home, fellow-citizens, you best know whether we have done well or ill. The suppression of unnecessary offices, of useless establishments and expenses, enabled us to discontinue our internal taxes. These, covering our land with officers and opening our doors to their intrusions, had already begun that process of domiciliary vexation which once entered is scarcely to be restrained from reaching successively every article of property and produce. If among these taxes some minor ones fell which had not been inconvenient, it was because their amount would not have paid the officers who collected them, and because, if they had any merit, the State authorities might adopt them instead of others less approved.

The remaining revenue on the consumption of foreign articles is paid chiefly by those who can afford to add foreign luxuries to domestic comforts, being collected on our seaboard and frontiers only, and incorporated with the transactions of our mercantile citizens, it may be the pleasure and the pride of an American to ask, What farmer, what mechanic, what laborer ever sees a taxgatherer of the United States? These contributions enable us to support the current expenses of the Government, to fulfill contracts with foreign nations, to extinguish the native right of soil within our limits, to extend those limits, and to apply such a surplus to our public debts as places at a short day their final redemption, and that redemption once effected the revenue thereby liberated may, by a just repartition of it among the States and a corresponding amendment of the Constitution, be applied in time of peace to rivers, canals, roads, arts, manufactures, education, and other great objects within each State. In time of war, if injustice by ourselves or others must sometimes produce war, increased as the same revenue will be by increased population and consumption, and aided by other resources reserved for that crisis, it may meet within the year all the expenses of the year without encroaching on the rights of future generations by burthening them with the debts of the past. War will then be but a suspension of useful works, and a return to a state of peace, a return to the progress of improvement.

I have said, fellow-citizens, that the income reserved had enabled us to extend our limits, but that extension may possibly pay for itself before we are called on, and in the meantime may keep down the accruing interest; in all events, it will replace the advances we shall have made. I know that the acquisition of Louisiana had been disapproved by some from a candid apprehension that the enlargement of our territory would endanger its union. But who can limit the extent to which the federative principle may operate effectively? The larger our association the less will it be shaken by local passions; and in any view is it not better that the opposite bank of the Mississippi should be settled by our own brethren and children than by strangers of another family? With which should we be most likely to live in harmony and friendly intercourse?

In matters of religion I have considered that its free exercise is placed by the Constitution independent of the powers of the General Government. I have therefore undertaken on no occasion to prescribe the religious exercises suited to it, but have left them, as the Constitution found them, under the direction and discipline of the church or state authorities acknowledged by the several religious societies.

The aboriginal inhabitants of these countries I have regarded with the commiseration their history inspires. Endowed with the faculties and the rights of men, breathing an ardent love of liberty and independence, and occupying a country which left them no desire but to be undisturbed, the stream of overflowing population from other regions directed itself on these shores; without power to divert or habits to contend against it, they have been overwhelmed by the current or driven before it; now reduced within limits too narrow for the hunter's state, humanity enjoins us to teach them agriculture and the domestic arts; to encourage them to that industry which alone can enable them to maintain their place in existence and to prepare them in time for that state of society which to bodily comforts adds the improvement of the mind and morals. We have therefore liberally furnished them with the implements of husbandry and household use; we have placed among them instructors in the arts of first necessity, and they are covered with the aegis of the law against aggressors from among ourselves.

But the endeavors to enlighten them on the fate which awaits their present course of life, to induce them to exercise their reason, follow its dictates, and change their pursuits with the change of circumstances have powerful obstacles to encounter; they are combated by the habits of their bodies, prejudices of their minds, ignorance, pride, and the influence of interested and crafty individuals among them who feel themselves something in the present order of things and fear to become nothing in any other. These persons inculcate a sanctimonious reverence for the customs of their ancestors; that whatsoever they did must be done through all time; that reason is a false guide, and to advance under its counsel in their physical, moral, or political condition is perilous innovation; that their duty is to remain as their Creator made them, ignorance being safety and knowledge full of danger; in short, my friends, among them also is seen the action and counteraction of good sense and of bigotry; they too have their antiphilosophists who find an interest in keeping things in their present state, who dread reformation, and exert all their faculties to maintain the ascendancy of habit over the duty of improving our reason and obeying its mandates.

In giving these outlines I do not mean, fellow-citizens, to arrogate to myself the merit of the measures. That is due, in the first place, to the reflecting character of our citizens at large, who, by the weight of public opinion, influence and strengthen the public measures. It is due to the sound discretion with which they select from among themselves those to whom they confide the legislative duties. It is due to the zeal and wisdom of the characters thus selected, who lay the foundations of public happiness in wholesome laws, the execution of which alone remains for others, and it is due to the able and faith ful auxiliaries, whose patriotism has associated them with me in the executive functions.

During this course of administration, and in order to disturb it, the artillery of the press has been leveled against us, charged with whatsoever its licentiousness could devise or dare. These abuses of an institution so important to freedom and science a re deeply to be regretted, inasmuch as they tend to lessen its usefulness and to sap its safety. They might, indeed, have been corrected by the wholesome punishments reserved to and provided by the laws of the several States against falsehood and defamati on, but public duties more urgent press on the time of public servants, and the offenders have therefore been left to find their punishment in the public indignation.

Nor was it uninteresting to the world that an experiment should be fairly and fully made, whether freedom of discussion, unaided by power, is not sufficient for the propagation and protection of truth-whether a government conducting itself in the tru e spirit of its constitution, with zeal and purity, and doing no act which it would be unwilling the whole world should witness, can be written down by falsehood and defamation. The experiment has been tried; you have witnessed the scene; our fellow-citiz ens looked on, cool and collected; they saw the latent source from which these outrages proceeded; they gathered around their public functionaries, and when the Constitution called them to the decision by suffrage, they pronounced their verdict, honorable to those who had served them and consolatory to the friend of man who believes that he may be trusted with the control of his own affairs.

No inference is here intended that the laws provided by the States against false and defamatory publications should not be enforced; he who has time renders a service to public morals and public tranquillity in reforming these abuses by the salutary coerc ions of the law; but the experiment is noted to prove that, since truth and reason have maintained their ground against false opinions in league with false facts, the press, confined to truth, needs no other legal restraint; the public judgment will corre ct false reasoning and opinions on a full hearing of all parties; and no other definite line can be drawn between the inestimable liberty of the press and its demoralizing licentiousness. If there be still improprieties which this rule would not restrain, its supplement must be sought in the censorship of public opinion.

Contemplating the union of sentiment now manifested so generally as auguring harmony and happiness to our future course, I offer to our country sincere congratulations. With those, too, not yet rallied to the same point the disposition to do so is gaining strength; facts are piercing through the veil drawn over them, and our doubting brethren will at length see that the mass of their fellow-citizens with whom they can not yet resolve to act as to principles and measures, think as they think and desire wha t they desire; that our wish as well as theirs is that the public efforts may be directed honestly to the public good, that peace be cultivated, civil and religious liberty unassailed, law and order preserved, equality of rights maintained, and that state of property, equal or unequal, which results to every man from his own industry or that of his father's. When satisfied of these views it is not in human nature that they should not approve and support them. In the meantime let us cherish them with patie nt affection, let us do them justice, and more than justice, in all competitions of interest; and we need not doubt that truth, reason, and their own interests will at length prevail, will gather them into the fold of their country, and will complete that entire union of opinion which gives to a nation the blessing of harmony and the benefit of all its strength.

I shall now enter on the duties to which my fellow-citizens have again called me, and shall proceed in the spirit of those principles which they have approved. I fear not that any motives of interest may lead me astray; I am sensible of no passion which c ould seduce me knowingly from the path of justice, but the weaknesses of human nature and the limits of my own understanding will produce errors of judgment sometimes injurious to your interests. I shall need, therefore, all the indulgence which I have he retofore experienced from my constituents; the want of it will certainly not lessen with increasing years. I shall need, too, the favor of that Being in whose hands we are, who led our fathers, as Israel of old, from their native land and planted them in a country flowing with all the necessaries and comforts of life; who has covered our infancy with His providence and our riper years with His wisdom and power, and to whose goodness I ask you to join in supplications with me that He will so enlighten the minds of your servants, guide their councils, and prosper their measures that whatsoever they do shall result in your good, and shall secure to you the peace, friendship, and approbation of all nations.

The initiative and referendum system is part of the American legal landscape in 24 states. In these states, citizens may write initiatives to amend the state Constitution or propose new statutes, and in some cases repeal laws with referendums. In the case of either an initiative or a referendum, the voting public decides on the outcome of the proposal during an election. In each state which allows citizens to put initiatives on the ballot, the process is slightly different, but the basics remain the same.

Currently, Nevada, California, Illinois, Oregon, Washington, Arizona, Idaho, Colorado, Montana, Maine, Massachusetts, Alaska, Florida, Nebraska, Oklahoma, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming, Missouri, Mississippi, Arkansas, Michigan, and Ohio allow voters to submit initiatives to the state ballot. Florida and Mississippi only allow amendments to the state constitution. Three more states, New Mexico, Kentucky, and Maryland, permit popular referendums, but not initiatives.

The first step in getting an initiative on the ballot is writing the text of the proposed initiative. Typically, a lawyer or team or lawyers performs this part of the task, to ensure that the text will be legal, clear, and enforceable. After the text of the initiative is written, it is submitted to a state official for review. This is usually the State Attorney General or the Secretary of State, and he or she writes an official title and summary for the initiative after reviewing it.

Once the initiative has been reviewed by the state, the group organizing it can start to gather signatures. The number of signature needed depends on voter turnout in the last major election. In most states, amendments to the state constitution require petition signatures by eight percent of the voters registered in the state, and new laws require between five and six percent. The signatures must be valid, as many states check the signatures against a list of voters registered in the state.

The state gives the group organizing the petition a deadline for filing. If the group collects enough signatures in time, the initiative or referendum will be placed on the ballot, and voters can decide on it. In the both cases, the paperwork must be completed and filed well before the election, to ensure that it will be included on the ballot.

An initiative can be suggested at any time, because it is a modification of the laws of the state. Paperwork on a referendum, on the other hand, must be filed within 90 days of the passage of the law in question. Voters cannot retroactively decide that they disapprove of the laws of their state, but they can act to strike down laws which they think are unconstitutional or unreasonable

The United States Supreme Court is the ultimate court of last resort. While the cases heard by lower level trial courts and appellate courts can be appealed to state supreme courts and federal appellate courts, no other court looks over the shoulder of the U.S. Supreme Court. The opinions issued by the nine justices on this court are final.

Every year the U.S. Supreme Court receives thousands of requests to have the high court hear specific cases. Experts estimate that roughly 5000 requests are made annually. These petitions, called writs of certiorari, are essentially pleas stating, "please hear my case." Each justice on the U.S. Supreme Court has a number of skilled law clerks working for him or her and these clerks review every writ of certiorari and submit a "cert memo" regarding the writs they review to the justice they are assigned. The judges review the memos and hold a conference to determine which of these cases should go on the court's docket.

The "Rule of Four" controls matters when deciding which issues the high court will hear. If four justices agree that a specific writ of certiorari should be granted, then the case will be placed on the Supreme Court's docket and an order stating that certiorari has been granted will be issued to the petitioner.

Typically, the justices grant certiorari, or "cert" as it is commonly called, to cases which may have far-reaching, interesting issues. The court may wish to hear a case and issue its opinion so that it can offer guidance to the lower level judges throughout the country who have the same issues come through their courtrooms on a daily basis. Cert is also often granted when there is a conflict among a number of lower level trial or appellate courts in interpreting a rule of law or a prior judicial decision. In such cases, the Supreme Court will issue an order specifying the correct interpretation of the law to pave the way and set the legal precedent for the lower courts.

According to the American Bar Association there are currently 1,116,967 lawyers practicing in the United States. That is approximately one lawyer for every 300 people, or approximately .36% of the total population. These statistics relate only to lawyers currently practicing and maintaining their licenses. There are far more with inactive or retired status.

Demographic statistics give us a picture of the typical lawyer as Caucasian and male. Roughly 75% of lawyers are male, and only 25% female. By far, Caucasians comprise the majority of lawyers in the US. They currently make up slightly fewer than 90% of all lawyers. These statistics are in flux however. In 1996, for example, Caucasians represented 96% of all lawyers, suggesting that lawyers from minority populations are increasing.

Lawyers from minority populations are still underrepresented, however. Blacks make up 4% of all lawyers. Hispanic lawyers comprise 3% of all lawyers. Asian lawyers are the least represented at 2% of the total number of lawyers.

Demographic information also informs us that about 75% of all lawyers work in the private sector. The greatest number of lawyers work in their own firm, about 48% with no partners. Other lawyers are most likely to work in either a small firm of two to five lawyers, or a very large firm of over 100 lawyers. About 28% of lawyers either work in a small, or very large firm.

However, firms that employ over 100 lawyers represent only 1% of the type of law firms in the US. Most firms, about 78%, have between two to five lawyers. Few work for the government or as public defenders. About 8% of lawyers are employed by the government, and less than 1% work as public defenders. Approximately 3% of lawyers work as judges.

California and New York each have over 100,000 lawyers representing the two states with the highest numbers of employed attorneys. Illinois has the third highest number of employed attorneys, over 60,000. The District of Columbia, Massachusetts, Florida and Pennsylvania currently have over 40,000 lawyers in each area.

The District of Columbia has by far the highest concentration of lawyers, but this is to be expected since it is the capital of the US. New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Boston all have a high number of lawyers per city.

From 2004 census statistics of the US Labor Department and of the American Medical Association, there are approximately 885,000 (884,974) doctors in the US. This represents about .29% of the population or one-third of 1%. There is roughly one doctor to 300 people in the US.

However, not all doctors see all people. Only about 91,000 doctors are general practitioners. This makes up only .03% of the total population, or one-thirtieth of 1%. Many medical professionals feel that the number of general practitioners is not adequate to the American population. They argue that the number of general practitioners needs to almost double in order to address the needs of Americans.

Unfortunately, there are many who are now loath to consider becoming doctors because incomes have not kept pace with inflation and education expenses. For example, malpractice insurance is now much higher than it was 20 years ago, given the rising costs of lawsuits. As well, education costs have risen, and mean the average doctor may have incurred over 100,000 US dollars (USD) of student loan debt prior to beginning work.

Another concern is that compensation for doctors who take Medicare is now significantly lower than what one would charge the average patient. As well, insurance companies play a part by contracting for low doctor fees as well. Many physicians feel the way to adequately address this issue and make compensation predictable and uniform is through a universal health program. Others argue that there are too many disadvantages to a government-run health program, and point to the poor administration and lack of compensation from current health programs like Medicare.

These arguments and the falling economic worth of being a physician often seems like too much of a hassle for potential new doctors. Doctors may choose to specialize instead, which tends to provide better compensation, or many students decide against doctoring on the whole.

Broken down by gender, women still comprise less than half of all doctors. Even in obstetrics and gynecology, a field where many women prefer a female doctor, there are still more males than females. The only specialty that currently has more females than males is pediatrics, and the numbers are nearly even there, with only 3000 more female pediatricians than male pediatricians.

Races other than Caucasians are significantly underrepresented. Caucasians represent 47.8% of all physicians. Black doctors only make up 2.3%, and Hispanic doctors about 3.2 %. The largest minority percentage is Asians doctors at 8.3% of all doctors.

Poverty line, or poverty threshold, is used to mark the minimum income needed to achieve a satisfactory standard of living. While this may mean different thing in different parts of the world, in the US being above the poverty line means having access to water, food, shelter, education, medical care, and adequate clothing. The poverty line varies widely depending on state, number of persons living in the household, number of children in the household, and factors like disability and access to medical care.

In the US, the poverty line rises or falls every year according to the Consumer Price Index and other factors. In 2006, a single person needed to earn a minimum of $9,800 ($12,250 if she lives in Alaska) a year to stay over the poverty line. A family of four needed a combined income of at least $20,000. According to these guidelines, more than 37 million people in the US are currently living below the poverty line.

Individuals who fall below the poverty line often lack basic things like microwaves, clothes dryers, and computers. However, 91 percent of the families under the poverty line own a color TV, and 52 percent own a stereo. When it comes to food security, close to 90 percent of Americans below the poverty line have regular access to it, either through food stamps or food assistance programs like soup kitchens. A much higher percentage of people under the poverty line lack access to medical care. While a few may be admitted into Medicaid or other government programs, most do not. This is especially true of adults, as children and the elder have an easier time obtaining free medical care.

On an interesting note, 46 percent of individuals who fall under the poverty line own their own homes. This is a percentage similar to the one obtained from people who own an acceptable income and do not receive government assistance. Of that 46 percent, some own a mobile home, and some own a three-bedroom home, although the general condition of the housing can vary widely. Many people who live under the poverty line are in urgent need for basic household repairs, such as a roof replacement or a pipeline fitting, and still do without them.

Critics of the current system used to determine the poverty line argue that the percentage of people living in poverty is much higher than what it seems. This is because the poverty line does not take into consideration certain factors such as rent or the median price of a home. The poverty line in the United States is the same, no matter what the cost of living in the area is. If it did, the percentage of Americans living under the poverty line would raise to 30 percent.

The procedure for getting a marriage license in the US varies from state to state, and individual counties may impose additional restrictions. The main points on which obtaining a marriage license differ is wait time to get the license, cost, whether the state requires blood tests, and how long the license will be valid. Age also used to be a considerable differing factor in most states, but now only Nebraska has an age requirement different than 18. In Nebraska, you must be 19 in order to get a marriage license. Some states will permit younger people to marry if they have parental permission or are legally emancipated.

What you will do, in most cases, when you apply for a marriage license is to apply at the county clerk office. It is usually located near the other state court offices, though in some states, like Nevada, you can get a marriage license from a registered chapel. You may need to make an appointment to apply, so you might want to call ahead. Usually, you just show up at the county clerk’s office during regular business hours. Note most county clerks observe all federal holidays, and generally have “banker’s hours,” from about 8am to 5pm.

At the time you obtain your marriage license both potential spouses should bring documentation to prove they are who they claim to be. This may include a driver’s license, social security card, and/or birth certificate. If you are not a legal resident of the United States, you may also need to bring proof of legal right to be in the US. Such proof could include a green card, visa, and usually a passport.

Before you obtain a license, some states may request that you undergo a blood test. This used to be required in almost every state, but now only 12 states still ask you to take one. The purpose behind the blood test is to type the blood of both parties entering the marriage. A negative blood type in the mother can mean problems with future pregnancies if the father has a positive blood type. The goal of blood typing was to prevent the devastating effects of Rh incompatibility.

Cost for obtaining the marriage license varies from between 4-80 US dollars (USD). Most states offer a license for approximately 40 USD. A state that requires blood testing will cost a little more since you have to pay for this, usually about 50-100 USD.

Most states have no waiting period between applying for and receiving a license. Some states need a day to get papers in order. A handful of states take three to six days to prepare the marriage license. Some states also impose a waiting period between the time you get your license and the time you can legally marry. At the most this waiting period is three days, and the majority of states do not have a waiting period.

A marriage license may have an expiration date, usually a generous three months to a year. A few states have no expiration date. You should check with your state two to three months prior to marrying to see when they recommend initiating the license process.

Once you have your marriage license, hold onto it. It normally needs to be filed with the county clerk after a marriage has taken place in order to make the marriage legally binding. Some ministers and judges perform this service for the couple, but you should definitely have someone responsible keep the license at hand for signing after a marriage has taken place.

In all cases, check with your town or country clerk prior to getting a marriage license. Rules on requirements for a license can change from time to time. Again, it’s best to do this several months ahead of a marriage so that failure to get a marriage license doesn’t hold up a wedding.

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is a law first established in 1970 by the US government. This act provides a process to review actions proposed by the government that might have a negative impact on the environment. NEPA provides for exclusions to the law, requires branches of the federal government to file statements about the environmental impact of actions, and requires such statements to outline other possible courses of action.

Not every branch of the federal government must file an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Some actions are categorically excluded from such filing by NEPA. For example, if the forestry service wishes to conduct a controlled burning or cut down a few dangerous trees, these actions are excluded from filing.

However, if a branch of the government wants to divert a waterway, set up oil wells, or use open space area for building, it is required by NEPA that the branch file an EIS. The EIS draws on the experts to determine the environmental impact of a choice. It also usually contains an argument when environmental impact is significant as to why such impact cannot be avoided.

However, no matter how great the arguments for taking an action, NEPA makes it clear that all alternatives to the action must be listed. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) then reviews the EIS. It is the EPA that ultimately decides which action, if any, the branch of government or governmental agency may pursue.

NEPA defines environment as several constituent factors. The environment is the geological, biological, ecological environment, and the social structure of the government’s inhabitants. Thus actions that would destabilize an economy would also be viewed by NEPA as reason for filing an EIS.

The intent of NEPA according to the framers of the act was to promote harmony between man and his environment. However, recent changes to NEPA have weakened the act by excluding more actions from review by the Environmental Protection Agency. While some see the new definitions of exclusions as necessary, environmentalists prefer NEPA in its original form and disapprove of the recent changes.

Many American consumers have lamented their inability to obtain traditionally produced raw milk cheeses made with unpasteurized milks. Unpasteurized cheeses are severely restricted in the United States, with different states having varying regulations about the sale and consumption of raw dairy products. Many culinary guerrillas have smuggled raw milk cheeses into the United States, and cooks with connections can sometimes obtain unpasteurized cheeses, for a price.

The United States Food and Drug Administration governs the consumption of raw milk products, in concert with the United States Department of Agriculture. According to federal law, raw milk cannot be transported across state lines with the intent of human consumption. Unpasteurized cheeses are actually legal, as long as they have been aged at least 60 days in an environment held at 35 degrees Fahrenheit (1 degree Celsius). During the aging process, the cheese becomes more acidic, killing most potential sources of bacterial infection.

The Food and Drug Administration believes that unpasteurized cheeses are unsafe, and has undertaken regulation of milk and dairy products to prevent the risk of infectious disease outbreak. Some bacterial infections can kill, especially in the case of immunodeficient individuals. For this reason, the Administration believes that it is better to be safe than sorry, restricting access to potentially unsafe food products.

Many individual states have followed suit, banning or restricting the sale of raw dairy products within the state, and sometimes prosecuting violators quite heavily. Unauthorized sale of dairy products can result in the loss of the family farm, if farmers happen to meet with a particularly unsympathetic court. A rigorous inspection program carried out by the Food and Drug Administration is aimed at preventing bacterial contamination at any step of the milk producing process, with all dairies in the United States experiencing regular plant inspections.

Some consumers feel that the consumption of potentially unsafe food is an individual choice, and it is relatively easy to find unaged unpasteurized cheeses in the United States, especially in urban areas which experience a high volume of traffic from cheese-loving nations like France and Italy. The United States Customs Service is responsible for apprehending illegal cheese before it crosses the United States border, but many agents are not trained to recognize unpasteurized cheeses.

Young unpasteurized cheeses tend to be more complex than their pasteurized counterparts, and for this reason they are highly sought after by consumers. The Food and Drug Administration has threatened numerous times to restrict the sale of aged unpasteurized cheeses as well, which might result in a global outcry, as many of the paragons of European cheese are made with raw milk.

The laws of each state determine the minimum age requirements for getting married. In almost every state it is not strictly illegal for someone to get married under the age of 18, although few states make the process pain-free. Some form of parental or supervisory permission is required in order for most teenagers to become married in the United States. Exceptions are generally made only for legally emancipated teens who are no longer under adult supervision.

Under most current state laws, a minor couple seeking to get married must go through the same process as adults seeking legally married status. In many states, a couple must first obtain a marriage license through a local probate office or magistrate. Underage couples may have a difficult time with this process, since the application often requires valid photographic identification. A 14 or 15 year old seeking to get married may not have a valid driver's license to establish identity.

Even with a valid marriage license and a parental consent form, a teen seeking to get married may still have difficulty finding a licensed minister to perform the wedding. Because the rate of failed marriages among underage couples is so high, a number of religious leaders often counsel teen couples to wait several years before getting married. Underage couples can still seek a civil marriage through a city or county magistrate's office, but there could still be several legal obstacles to overcome.

The problems faced by those under 18 seeking to get married are often compounded by conflicting state and federal laws. Engaging in sexual intercourse, whether consensual or non-consensual, with a person under the age of 18 is often considered a crime called statutory rape. Some states may lower the age of consent to 16, but a 19 year old male can be jailed for having consensual sex with his 15 year old girlfriend. If the couple were legally married, however, the same act between husband and wife would not be criminally actionable.

Few parents would ever want to see their 14 year old daughter become pregnant, but that scenario is becoming more common as teens become sexually active at earlier ages. Having the option of getting married would provide a means for the young couple to qualify for available services.

Many people who are interested in the operation of the judicial system in the United States have visited the Supreme Court in Washington, DC. Among the activities offered are tours, a museum, and the chance to learn about the history of the Court. However, many people wonder if it is possible to visit the Supreme Court while it is in session. Here are a few things that should be kept in mind if a trip to Washington includes plans to visit the Supreme Court.

It is possible to visit the Supreme Court and be able to attend a session. In order to visit Supreme Court sessions, it is important to note when the Court conducts sessions. The opening sessions begin with the first Monday in the month of October, and are reserved solely for the presentation of oral arguments. Using a system based on two-week stretches, sessions are held on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays. With some breaks for holidays, the sessions continue until the latter part of April. Generally, the daily schedule begins with two one-hour sessions in the morning, and afternoon sessions scheduled as needed. Both the prosecution and the defense are provided with thirty minutes to make a case and answer any questions that come to the minds of the judges.

To visit the Supreme Court during the period from May to June, there is a need to check on the times for sessions that focus on the release of orders and the delivering of opinions. These sessions are held on Mondays and continue until all the cases presented during the oral argument sessions have been decided. Generally, each session during this period is between fifteen and thirty minutes, and it is possible to visit the Supreme Court through the last week of June. However, the number of cases that are awaiting a decision determines the exact time frame.

It is an excellent idea to make plans to visit the Supreme Court so there is plenty of time to arrive early on the day of the session. Seating is on a first come, first served basis. During the season for oral arguments, two lines are formed. Visitors who wish to see an entire argument stand in one line, while others who are interested into a quick three-minute visit to a session stand in the second line. Guests are admonished to enter and exit the courtroom quietly, allowing the proceedings to continue without disruption. Visitors have a status of observer only, and may not participate in the sessions.

After people visit the Supreme Court and have a chance to see an actual session, it is possible to obtain copies of Court decisions. The copies are provided by the Public Information Office, located on the ground floor of the building. In most instances, the opinions are prepared and available to the public within thirty to forty-five minutes after the Bench has rendered a decision.

CHARLES THE SECOND, BY THE GRACE OF GOD, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, defender of the Faith; To all to whome theis presents shall come Greetinge:

WHEREAS, by the severall Navigacons, discoveryes and susccessfull Plantacons of diverse of our loving Subjects of this our Realme of England, Severall Lands, Islands,Places, Colonies and Plantacons have byn obtayned and setled in that parte of the Continent of America called New England, and thereby the Trade and Comerce there hath byn of late yeares much increased,

AND WHEREAS, wee have byn informed by the humble Peticon of our Trusty and welbeloved John Winthrop, John Mason, Samuell Willis, Henry Clerke, Mathew Allen, John Tappen, Nathan Gold, Richard Treate, Richard Lord, Henry Woolicott, John Talcott, Daniell Clerke, John Ogden, Thomas Wells, Obedias Brewen, John Clerke, Anthony Haukins, John Deming and Mathew Camfeild, being Persons Principally interested in our Colony or Plantacon of Connecticut in New England, that the same Colony or the greatest parte thereof was purchased and obteyned for greate and valuable Consideracons, And some other part thereof gained by Conquest and with much difficulty, and att the onely endeavours, expence and Charge of them and their Associates, and those vnder whome they Clayme, Subdued and improved, and thereby become a considerable enlargement and addicon of our Dominions and interest there.

NOW KNOW YEA, that in consideracion thereof, and in regard the said Colony is remote from other the English Plantacons in the Places aforesaid, And to the end the Affaires and Business which shall from tyme to tyme happen or arise concerning the same may be duely Ordered and managed.

WEE HAVE thought fitt, and att the humble Peticon of the Persons aforesaid, and are graciously pleased to Create and Make them a Body Pollitique and Corporate, with the powers and Priviliges herein after menconed; And Accordingly Our will and pleasure is, and of our especiall grace, certeine knowledge and meere mocon wee have Ordeyned, Constituted and Declared, And by theis presents, for vs, our heires and Successors, Doe Ordeine, Constitute and Declare That they, the said John Winthrop, John Mason, Samuell Willis, Henry Clerke, Mathew Allen, John Tappen, Nathan Gold, Richard Treate, Richard Lord, Henry Woollcot, John Talcot, Daniell Clerke, John Ogden, Thomas Wells, Obadiah Brewen, John Clerke, Anthony Hawkins, John Deming and Mathew Camfeild, and all such others as now are or hereafter shall bee Admitted and made free of the Company and Society of our Collony of Connecticut in America, shall from tyme to tyme and forever hereafter, bee one Body Corporate and Pollitique in fact and name, by the Name of Governour and Company of the English Collony of Connecticut in New England in America; And that by the same name they and their Successors shall and may have perpetuall Succession, and shall and mey bee Persons able and Capable in the law to Plead and bee Impleaded, to Answere and to be Answered vnto, to Defend and bee Defended in all and Singular, Suits, Causes, quarrelles, Matters, Accons and things of what kind or nature soever, And alsoe to have, take, possesse, acquire and purchase lands Tenements or hereditaments, or any goods or Chattells, and the same to, Lease, Graunt, Demise, Alien, bargaine, Sell and dispose of, as other our leige People of this our Realme of England, or any other Corporacon or Body Politique within the same may lawfully doe.

AND FURTHER, that the said Governour and Company, and their Successors shall and may for ever hereafter have a Comon Seale to serve and vse for all Causes, matters, things and affaires, whatsoever of them and their Successors, and the same Seale to alter, change, breake and make new from tyme to tyme att their wills and pleasures, as they shall thinke fitt. And further, wee will and Ordeine, and by theis presents for vs, our heires and Successors Doe Declare and appoint, that for the better ordering and manageing of the affaires and businesse of the said Company and their Successors, there shall be one Governour, one Deputy Governour and Twelve Assistants to bee from tyme to tyme Constituted, Elected and Chosen out of the Freemen of the said Company for the tyme being, in such manner and forme as hereafter in these presents is expressed; which said Officers shall apply themselves to take care for the best disposeing and Ordering of the Generall business and affaires of and concerning the lands and hereditaments herein after menconed to bee graunted, and the Plantacon thereof and the Government of the People thereof. And for the better execucon of our Royall Pleasure herein, WEE DOE for vs, our heires and Successors, Assigne, name, Constitute and appoint the aforesaid John Winthrop to bee the first and present Governour of the said Company; And the said John Mason to bee the Deputy Governour; And the said Samuell Willis, Mathew Allen, Nathan Gold, Henry Clerke, Richard Treat, John Ogden, Thomas Tappen, John Talcott, Thomas Wells, Henry Woolcot, Richard Lord and Daniell Clerke to bee the Twelve present Assistants of the said Company; to contynue in the said severall Offices respectively, vntill the second Thursday which shall bee in the moneth of October now next comeing.

AND FURTHER, wee will, and by theis presents for vs, our heires and Successors DOE Ordaine and Graunt that the Governour of the said Company for the tyme being, or, in his absence by occasion of sicknes, or otherwise by his leave or permission, the Deputy Governour for the tyme being, shall and may from tyme to tyme vpon all occasions give Order for the assembling of the said Company and calling them together to Consult and advise of the businesse and Affairs of the said Company, And that for ever hereafter Twice in every yeare, (That is to say,) on every Second Thursday in October and on every Second Thursday in May, or oftener, in Case it shall bee requisite, The Assistants and freemen of the said Company, or such of them, (not exceeding twoe Persons from each Place, Towne or Citty) whoe, shall bee from tyme to tyme therevnto Elected or deputed by the major parte of the freemen of the respective Townes, Cittyes and Places for which they shall bee soe elected or Deputed, shall have a generall meeting or Assembly, then and their to Consult and advise in and about the Affaires And businesse of the said Company; And that the Governour, or in his absence the Deputy Governour of the said Company for the tyme being, and such of the Assistants and freemen of the said Company as shall be soe Elected or Deputed and bee present att such meeting or Assembly, or the greatest number of them, whereof the Governour or Deputy Governour and Six of the Assistants, at least, to bee Seaven, shall be called the Generall Assembly, and shall have full power and authority to alter and change their dayes and tymes of meeting or Generall Assemblies for Electing the Governour, Deputy Governour and Assistants or other Officers or any other Courts, Assemblies or meetings, and to Choose, Nominate and appoint such and soe many other Persons as they shall thinke fitt and shall bee willing to accept the same, to bee free of the said Company and Body Politique, and them into the same to Admitt and to Elect, and Constitute such Officers as they shall thinke fitt and requisite for the Ordering, Manageing and disposeing of the Affaires of the said Governour and Company and their Successors. AND WEE DOE hereby for vs, our heires and Successors, Establish and Ordeine, that once in the yeare for ever hereafter, namely, the said Second Thursday in May, the Governour, Deputy Governour, and Assistants of the said Company and other Officers of the said Company, or such of them as the said Generall Assembly shall thinke fitt, shall bee in the said Generall Court and Assembly to be held from that day or tyme, newly Chosen for the yeare ensuing, by such greater parte of the said Company for the tyme being then and there present. And if the Governour, Deputy Governour and Assistants by these presents appointed, or such as hereafter bee newly Chosen into their Roomes, or any of them, or any other the Officers to bee appointed for the said Company shall dye or bee removed from his or their severall Offices or Places before the said Generall day of Eleccon, whome wee doe hereby Declare for any misdemeanour or default to bee removeable by the Governour, Assistants and Company, or such greater part of them in any of the said publique Courts to be Assembled as is aforesaid, That then and in every such Case itt shall and may bee lawfull to and for the Governour, Deputy Governour and Assistants and Company aforesaid, or such greater parte of them soe to bee Assembled as is aforesaid in any of their Assemblies, to proceede to a New Eleccon of one or more of their Company in the Roome or place, Roomes or Places of such Governour, Deputy Governour, Assistant or other Officer or Officers soe dyeing or removed, according to their discretions; and immediately vpon and after such Eleccon or Eleccons made of such Governour, Deputy Governour, Assistant or Assistants, or any other Officer of the said Company in manner and forme, Aforesaid, The Authority Office and Power before given to the former Governour, Deputy Governour or other Officer and Officers soe removed, in whose stead and Place new shall be chosen, shall as to him and them and every of them respectively cease and determine.

PULMVIDED, alsoe, and our will and pleasure is, That as well such as are by theis presents appointed to bee the present Governour, Deputy Governour and Assistants of the said Company as those that shall succeed them, and all other Officers to bee appointed and Chosen as aforesaid, shall, before they vndertake the Execucon of their said Offices and places respectively, take their severall and respective Corporall Oathes for the due and faithfull performance of their dutyes in their severall Offices and Places, before such Person or Persons as are by these Presents hereafter appoynted to take and receive the same; That is to say, the said John Winthrop, whoe is herein before nominated and appointed the present Governour of the said Company, shall take the said Oath before one or more of the Masters of our Court of Chancery for the tyme being, vnto which Master of Chancery WEE DOE, by theis presents, give full power and authority to administer the said Oath to the said John Winthrop accordingly. And the said John Mason, whoe is herein before nominated and appointed the present Deputy Governour of the said Company, shall take the said Oath before the said John Winthrop, or any twoe of the Assistants of the said Company, vnto whome WEE DOE by these presents, give full power and authority to Administer the said Oath to the said John Mason accordingly. And the said Samuell Willis, Henry Clerke, Mathew Allen, John Tappen, Nathan Gold, Richard Treate, Richard Lord, Henry Woolcott, John Talcott, Daniell Clerke, John Ogden and Thomas Welles, whoe are herein before Nominated and appointed the present Assistants of the said Company, shall take the Oath before the said John Winthrop and John Mason, or one of them, to whome WEE DOE hereby give full power and authority to Administer the same accordingly. And our further will and pleasure, is that all and every Governour or Deputy Governour to bee Elected and Chosen by vertue of theis presents, shall take the said Oath before two or more of the Assistants of the said Company for the tyme being, vnto whom wee doe, by theis presents, give full power and authority to give and Administer the said Oath accordingly. And the said Assistants and every of them, and all and every other Officer or Officers to bee hereafter Chosen from tyme to tyme, to take the said Oath before the Governour or Deputy Governour for the tyme being, vnto which said Governour or Deputy Governour wee doe, by theis presents, give full power and authority to Administer the same accordingly.

AND FURTHER, of our more ample grace, certeine knowledge and meere mocon WEE HAVE given and Graunted, and by theis presents, for vs, our heires and Successors, ULME give and Graunt vnto the said Governour and Company of the English Colony of Connecticut in New England in America, and to every Inhabitant there, and to every Person and Persons Trading thither, And to every such Person and Persons as are or shall bee free of the said Collony, full power and authority from tyme to tyme and att all tymes hereafter, to take, Ship, Transport and Carry away, for and towards the Plantacon and defence of the said Collony such of our loveing Subjects and Strangers as shall or will willingly accompany them in and to their said Collony and Plantacon: (Except such Person and Persons as are or shall bee therein restrayned by vs, our heires and Successors:) And alsoe to Ship and Transport all and all manner of goods, Chattells, Merchandizes and other things whatsoever that are or shall be vsefull or necessary for the Inhabitants of the said Collony and may lawfully bee Transported thither; Neverthe lesse, not to bee discharged of payment to vs, our heires and Successors, of the Dutyes, Customes and Subsidies which are or ought to bee paid or payable for the same.

AND FURTHER, Our will and pleasure is, and WEE DOE for vs, our heires and Successors, Ordeyne, Declare and Graunt vnto the said Governour and Company and their Successors, That all and every the Subjects of vs, our heires or Successors which shall goe to Inhabite within the said Colony, and every of their Children which shall happen to bee borne there or on the Sea in goeing thither or returneing from thence, shall have and enjoye all liberties and immunities of free and naturall Subjects within any the Dominions of vs, our heires or Successors, to all intents, Construccons and purposes whatsoever, as if they and every of them were borne within the Realme of England,

AND WEE DOE authorize and impower the Governour, or in his absence the Deputy Governour for the tyme being, to appointe two or more of the said assistants att any of their Courts or Assemblyes to bee held as aforesaid, to have power and authority to Administer the Oath of Supremacy and obedience to all and every Person and Persons which shall att any tyme or tymes hereafter goe or passe into the said Colony of Connecticutt, vnto which said Assistants soe to bee appointed as aforesaid, WEE DOE, by these presents, give full power and authority to Administer the said Oath accordingly.

AND WEE DOE FURTHER, of our especiall grace, certeine knowledge and meere mocon, give and Graunt vnto the said Governour and Company of the English Colony of Connecticutt in New England in America, and their Successors, that itt shall and may bee lawful to and for the Governour or Deputy Governour and such of the Assistants of the said Company for the tyme being as shall bee Assembled in any of the Generall Courts aforesaid, or in any Courts to be especially Sumoned or Assembled for that purpose, or the greater parte of them, whereof the Governour or Deputy Governour and Six of the Assistants, to be all wayes Seaven, to Erect and make such Judicatories for the heareing and Determining of all Accons, Causes, matters and things happening within the said Colony or Plantacon and which shall bee in dispute and depending there, as they shall thinke fitt and convenient; And alsoe from tyme to tyme to Make, Ordaine and Establish All manner of wholesome and reasonable Lawes, Statutes, Ordinances, Direccons and Instruccons, not contrary to the laws of this Realme of England, as well for setling the formes and Ceremonies of Government and Magestracy fitt and necessary for the said Plantacon and the Inhabitants there as for naming and Stileing all sorts of Officers, both superior and inferior, which they shall find needfull for the Government and Plantacon of the said Colony, and the distinguishing and setting forth of the severall Dutyes, Powers and Lymitts of every such Office and Place, and the formes of such Oaths, not being contrary to the Laws and Statutes of this our Realme of England, to bee administered for the Execucon of the said severall Offices and Places; As alsoe for the disposeing and Ordering of the Eleccon of such of the said Officers as are to bee Annually Chosen, and of such others as shall succeed in case of death or removall, and Administering the said Oath to the new Elected Officers, and Graunting necessary Comissions, and for imposicon of lawfull Fines, Mulcts, Imprisonment or other Punishment vpon Offenders and Delinquents, according to the Course of other Corporacons within this our Kingdome of England, and the same Lawes, fines, Mulcts and Execucons to alter, change, revoke, adnull, release or Pardon, vnder their Comon Seale, As by the said Generall Assembly or the major part of them shall be thought fitt; And for the directing, ruleing and disposing of all other matters and things whereby our said people, Inhabitants there, may bee soe religiously, peaceably and civilly Governed as their good life and orderly Conversacon may wynn and invite the Natives of the Country to the knowledge and obedience of the onely true God and Saviour of mankind, and the Christian faith, which in our Royall intencons and the Adventurers free profession is the onely and principall end of this Plantacon; WILLING, Commanding and requireing, and by these presents, for vs, our heires and Successors, Ordaineing and appointeing. That all such Lawes, Statutes and Ordinances, Instruccons, Imposicons, and Direccons as shall bee soe made by the Governour, Deputy Governour, and Assistants, as aforesaid, and published in writeing vnder their Comon Seale, shall carefully and duely bee observed, kept, performed and putt in execucion, according to the true intent and meaning of the same.

AND these our letters Patents, or the Duplicate or Exemplification thereof, shall bee to all and every such Officers, Superiors and inferiors, from tyme to tyme, for the Putting of the same Orders, Lawes, Statutes, Ordinances, Instruccons and Direccons in due Execucon, against vs, our heires and Successors, a sufficient warrant and discharge.

AND WEE DOE FURTHER, for vs, our heires and Successors, give and Graunt vnto the said Governor and Company and their Successors, by these presents, That itt shall and may bee lawfull to and for the chiefe Commanders, Governours and Officers of the said Company for the tyme being whoe shall bee resident in the parts of New England hereafter menconed, and others inhabitating there by their leave, admittance, appointment or direccon, from tyme to tyme and att all tymes hereafter, for their speciall defence and safety, to Assemble, Martiall, Array, and putt in Warlike posture the Inhabitants of the said Colony, and to; Commissionate, Impower and authorize such Person or Persons as they shall thinke fitt to lead and Conduct the said Inhabitants, and to encounter, expulse, repell and resist by force of Armes, as well by Sea as by land, And alsoe to kill, Slay and destroy, by all fitting wayes, enterprizes and meanes whatsoever, all and every such Person or Persons as shall at any tyme hereafter Attempt or enterprize the destruccon, Invasion, detriment or annoyance of the said Inhabitants or Plantacon, And to vse and exercise the law Martiall, in such Cases onely as occasion shall require, And to take or surprize by all wayes and meanes whatsoever, all and every such Person and Persons, with their Shipps, Armour, Ammunicon, and other goods of such as shall in such hostile manner invade or attempt the defeating of the said Plantacon or the hurt of the said Company and Inhabitants; and vpon just Causes to invade and destroy the Natives or other Enemyes of the said Colony.

NEVERTHELESSE, Our Will and pleasure is, AND WEE DOE hereby Declare vnto all Christian Kings, Princes and States, That if any Persons which shall hereafter Bee of the said Company or Plantacon, or any other, by appointment of the said Governor and Company for the tyme being, shall at any tyme or tymes hereafter Robb or Spoile by Sea or by land, and doe any hurt, violence or unlawful hostility to any of the Subjects of vs, our heires or Successors, or any of the Subjects of any Prince or State beinge then in league with vs, our heires or Successors, vpon Complaint of such injury done to any such Prince or State, or their Subjects WEE, our heires and Successors, will make open Proclamacon within any parts of our Realme of England fitt for that purpose, That the Person or Persons committinge any such Robbery or Spoile, shall within the tyme lymitted by such Proclamacon, make full restitucon or satisfaccon of all such injuries done or committed, Soe as the said Prince or others soe complayneing may bee fully satisfied and contented. And if the said Person or Persons whoe shall committ any such Robbery or Spoile shall not make satisfaccon accordingly, within such tyme soe to bee limited, That then itt shall and may bee lawful for vs, our heires and Successors, to put such Person or Persons out of our Allegiance and Proteccon: And that it shall and may bee lawfull and free for all Princes or others to Prosecute with hostility such Offenders and every of them, their and every of their Procurers, ayders, Abettors and Councellors in that behalfe. PULMVIDED, alsoe, and our expresse will and pleasure is, AND WEE DOE by these presents for vs, our heires and Successors, Ordeyne and appointe that these presents shall not in any manner hinder any of our loveing Subjects whatsoever to vse and exercise the Trade of Fishinge vpon the coast of New England in America, but they and every or any of them shall have full and free power and liberty to contynue and vse the said Trade of Fishing upon the said Coast, in any of the Seas therevnto adioyning, or any Armes of the Seas or Salt Water Rivers where they have byn accustomed to Fish, and to build and sett vpon the wast land belonging to the said Colony of Connecticutt, such Wharfes, Stages and workehouses as shall bee necessary for the Salting, dryeing and keeping of their Fish to bee taken or gotten vpon that Coast, any thinge in these presents conteyened to the contrary notwithstanding.

AND KNOWE YEE FURTHER, That Wee, of our more abundant grace, certaine knowledge and meere mocon HAVE given, Graunted and Confirmed, And by theis presents for vs, our heires and Successors, DOE give, Graunt and Confirme vnto the said Governor and Company and their Successors, AULM that parte of our Dominions in Newe England in America bounded on the East by Norrogancett River, commonly called Norrogancett Bay, where the said River falleth into the Sea, and on the North by the lyne of the Massachusetts Plantacon, and on the South by the Sea, and in longitude as the lyne of the Massachusetts Colony, runinge from East to West, (that is to say,) from the Said Norrogancett Bay on the East to the South Sea on the West parte, with the Islands thervnto adioyneinge, Together with all firme lands, Soyles, Grounds, Havens, Ports, Rivers, Waters, Fishings, Mynes, Mynerals, Precious Stones, Quarries, and all and singular other Comodities, Iurisdiccons, Royalties, Priviledges, Francheses, Preheminences, and hereditaments whatsoever within the said Tract, Bounds, lands and Islands aforesaid, or to them or any of them belonging.

TO HAVE AND TO HOLD the same vnto the said Governor and Company, their Successors and Assignes, for ever vpon Trust and for the vse and benefitt of themselves and their Associates, freemen of the said Colony, their heires and Assignes, TO BEE HOLDEN of vs, our heires and Successors, as of our Mannor of East Greenewich, in Free and Common Soccage, and not in Capite nor by Knights Service, YULMLDING AND PAYINGE therefore to vs, our heires and Successors, onely the Fifth parte of all the Oare of Gold and Silver which from tyme to tyme and at all tymes hereafter shall bee there gotten, had or obteyned, in liew of all Services, Dutyes and Demaunds whatsoever, to bee to vs, our heires or Successors, therefore or thereout rendered, made or paid.

AND LASTLY, Wee doe for vs, our heires, and Successors, Graunt to the said Governor and Company and their Successors, by these presents, that these our Letters Patent shall bee firme, good and effectuall in the lawe to all intents, Construccons and purposes whatsoever, accordinge to our true intent and meaneing herein before Declared, as shall be Construed, reputed and adiudged most favourable on the behalfe and for the best benefitt and behoofe of the said Governor and Company and their Successors, ALTHOUGH EXPRESSE MENCON of the true yearely value or certeinty of the premises, or of any of them, or of any other Guifts or Graunts by vs or by any of our Progenitors or Predecessors heretofore made to the said Governor and Company of the English Colony of Connecticut in New England in America aforesaid in theis presents is not made, or any Statute, Act, Ordinance, Provision, Proclamacon or Restriccon heretofore had, made. Enacted, Ordeyned or Provided, or any other matter, Cause or thinge whatsoever to the contrary thereof in any wise notwithstanding.

IN WITNES whereof, we have caused these our Letters to be made Patent; WITNES our Selfe, att Westminister, the three and Twentieth day of Aprill, in the Fowerteenth yeare of our Reigne.

By writt of Privy Seale

HOWARD

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) is a controversial piece of legislation passed in the United States in 2001 to fulfill President George W. Bush promises of sweeping educational reform. Many Americans agree that the public education system is in need of drastic changes so that American children can be better served. However, some Americans feel that No Child Left Behind was not a productive response to the problem. Many classroom teachers, educational activists, and advocates for alternative education have spoken out against NCLB.

One of the most serious criticisms of No Child Left Behind is an issue of funding and unfunded mandates. Critics say that education funding is not a high priority in the United States, with many schools finding their budgets cut repeatedly year after year. This makes it difficult to purchase textbooks, let alone implement policies required by No Child Left Behind. Many teachers or potential teachers who can offer excellent instruction are often reluctant to enter the public school system, which is notorious - especially in urban areas - for having decaying facilities and low compensation for teachers. In especially poor districts, teachers are sometimes forced to purchase classroom supplies out of pocket if they want their students to have access to art supplies, paper, and other educational tools. The strict requirements of NCLB can be a financial drain on schools and districts already strapped for cash.

Many critics of No Child Left Behind also argue strongly against the use of standardized testing to evaluate school progress. Studies have shown that some students simply perform better on standardized tests than others, and that good performance on testing does not necessarily reflect a higher quality education, especially when many classroom teachers feel pressured to “teach to the test” in order to ensure good scores for their school district. Furthermore, some school districts may feel tempted to stack the deck in their favor by excluding students whom they know will perform badly, such as the developmentally disabled and English as a Second Language students. Also, because the tests are set on a state by state basis, individual states have the ability to manipulate the material on them to make test taking easier for their students, making them an invalid measure of progress and abilities. Opponents of NCLB also point out that the standardized tests are thought to have cultural and linguistic biases; including testing recently immigrated non-English speaking students in English.

If a school is determined to be "failing" under the No Child Left Behind standards, sanctions are imposed on the school. Many organizations including the American Federation of Teachers believe that these sanctions are not a helpful way to address failing schools, because they are viewed as penalizing, rather than supportive. Some of the sanctions are sensible; for example, when a school is identified as in need of improvement, a school improvement plan is developed as a cooperative effort between parents, teachers, administrators, and the department of education. This improvement plan must clearly address the ways in which the school intends to rectify the situation.

However, many of these sanctions are perceived as punitive, and potentially harmful to the troubled school district. Parents with children in schools undergoing sanctions are allowed to transfer them to another district, and the failing district is required to pay for transportation costs to the new school. Furthermore, while the sanctions include measures like providing extra assistance to students in need of it, this assistance must fall within guidelines which some teachers feel are very narrow, because No Child Left Behind places a heavy emphasis on specific scientific research. While some students may be well-served by the services that schools can offer them under No Child Left Behind, many teachers wish to be able to offer a wider range of assistance, even if this help includes non-conventional educational approaches.

Some critics also believe that the requirements for corrective action are too restrictive. These requirements include firing “school staff relevant to the failure,” according to the Department of Education, along with restructuring school management, bringing in educational professionals from outside the school district, and creating a new curriculum. If a school continues to struggle, it may be closed, or reopened under new management, often under an umbrella corporation that offers educational services to various states which need to close and reopen schools under No Child Left Behind sanctions. Some teachers feel that these sanctions ultimately harm the school district and children that they are supposed to be helping. Critics of NCLB point out that this "restructuring," or "reconstitution," is likely to dismantle school community, disrupting the working environment, learning environment, and community connections to the schools.

Critics of No Child Left Behind believe that the American education system is in need of reform, and have proposed alternative solutions. Educators hope that the two opposing sides can reach an agreement that benefits American children. The dialog between supporters and detractors of No Child Left Behind is an important part of a larger discussion about American education, and indicates how passionately many Americans feel about ensuring a quality education for their children. Of greatest concern to many educational activists is the fact that the students who are most likely to be in "failing" schools - the poor, non-white students - are also the children most in danger of being hurt by the sanctions enforced by No Child Left Behind.

The Pledge of Allegiance is a short speech that goes: "I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." In the United States, it is often recited at public events and it is commonly recited at public schools, especially elementary schools. To recite the Pledge of Allegiance, school children are meant to stand facing the American flag with their right hand on their heart.

The Pledge of Allegiance was written in 1892 by a Baptist minister and socialist author named Francis Bellamy. Bellamy wrote the pledge of allegiance as part of an advertising campaign for a magazine called Youth's Companion, as a way to celebrate the 400-year anniversary of Christopher Columbus' journey to America. Bellamy's original Pledge of Allegiance, however, did not include any reference to God.

The inclusion of the phrase "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance was inspired by a Catholic group called the Knights of Columbus, who added the phrase to their own recitals in 1951, and attempted to make it a formal part of the pledge. However, the Pledge of Allegiance was not officially changed to include the phrase until 1954, when Minister George Docherty recited a sermon about the Pledge, while president Eisenhower was in attendance. Docherty and Eisenhower spoke after the sermon, and Eisenhower introduced legislation to modify the Pledge of Allegiance the next day. Since that time, "under God" has been officially recognized as a part of the Pledge of Allegiance.

However, many people dispute the allowance of the phrase "under God" in the Pledge of Allegiance. They argue that, because the pledge is recited in public schools and at public events, it breaks the First Amendment claim of separation of church and state. In 2002, a case was brought to the Supreme Court by Michael Newdow, an atheist who did not want his daughter to have to recite the words "under God" in her classroom. However, the Supreme Court ultimately claimed that Newdow did not have the right to bring the case to trial, because he was divorced and was not the parent with primary custody. Because of this, they did not have to make a judgment regarding whether the Pledge of Allegiance represented a breach of the First Amendment.

The Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD) organizes, sponsors, oversees and produces Presidential and Vice Presidential debates during the national election cycle. This private, nonprofit group arose in 1987 to assume the role from the nonpartisan League of Women Voters. The Commission on Presidential Debates also conducts research, takes polls, and holds conferences to educate voters and empower them to make informed decisions about major candidates.

The Commission on Presidential Debates seeks to ensure that these debates are fair, informed, and reach a wide audience. While not a government agency, it must comply with the regulations of the Federal Election Commission that state there should be clear, consistent guidelines on national debates. Thus, the Commission on Presidential Debates has established a selection process to narrow the field of candidates to those realistically in the running. They've interpreted this to mean the invited candidate must be constitutionally eligible to be legally elected, will appear on enough states' ballots that he or she could win a majority of Electoral votes, and has garnered at least 15% of the popular vote in the months leading up to the election.

Other concerns of the Commission on Presidential Debates are finding appropriate locations to host the debates, appointing moderators who will ask questions reflecting the nation's concerns, and partnering with community organizations to sponsor the event. These are evolving goals as citizens' needs change. For instance, 2004 was the first year that the Commission on Presidential Debates selected more than one journalist moderator to pose questions, after people criticized the single-moderator format.

Many critics are hostile to the bipartisan leanings of the Commission on Presidential Debates. The organization was established when the Democratic and Republican parties took issue with the League of Women Voters, and is led by major Democrat and Republican organizers as its chairpersons. Also, the Commission on Presidential Debates's criteria for a "realistic" candidate eliminates strong third party candidates from participating in the debate, even when they have garnered more than 15% of popular support. The rules of the debates themselves, limited as they are from rebuttals, follow-up questions, or spontaneous audience questions, cause some to question the authenticity of the exchanges. Several groups of united voters have proposed changes to the Commission on Presidential Debates's criteria to encourage an open dialogue, unrehearsed candidate responses, and viable third party candidate participation.

Oh, say can you see, by the dawn's early light,
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming?
Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous fight,
O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming?
And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there.
O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?

On the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,
As it fitfully blows, now conceals, now discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,
In full glory reflected now shines on the stream:
'Tis the star-spangled banner! O long may it wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion
A home and a country should leave us no more?
Their blood has wiped out their foul footstep's pollution.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

Oh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved homes and the war's desolation!
Blest with victory and peace, may the heaven-rescued land
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation.
Then conquer we must, for our cause it is just,
And this be our motto: "In God is our trust."
And the star-spangled banner forever shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!

September 20, 1814
--Francis Scott Key

There are 18 islands scattered throughout the San Francisco Bay, including uninhabited rocks, protected wildlife refuges, and developed islands with sizable populations. Some of the islands of the San Francisco Bay are quite famous, as is the case with Alcatraz. Many of the islands are accessible only by private watercraft such as sailboats, and each has unique features which make it worth visiting, if you can get there.

Many of the islands of the San Francisco bay are set aside as parks and refuges. Angel Island is a State Park accessible by ferry from several locations around the Bay, and Alcatraz is a National Park. Visitors to these islands of the San Francisco Bay are welcome year round, although summertime is the peak season for visiting. There are also several wildlife refuges, including the East and West Marin Islands, Brooks Island, and Bair Island. Brooks Island is part of the East Bay Regional Parks District, and hosts migrant birds, wetlands, and walking paths. Bair Island is an extensive wildlife refuge in the South Bay, and is an important part of the Bay Area ecology.

There are also several islands of the San Francisco Bay which are little more than glorified rocky outcroppings. These include Red Rock Island, on the Western side of the Richmond Bridge, along with the East and West Sisters, Ballena Bay Island next to Alameda, and Pat Rock. Red Rock Island is also the only privately owned of the islands in the San Francisco Bay, although the fact that it technically lies in three counties makes potential development a challenge.

There are also inhabited islands of the San Francisco Bay. One of the islands, Coast Guard Island, is set aside for military use only. The other inhabited islands of the San Francisco Bay are all open to the public. Yerba Buena Island lies in the middle of the San Francisco Bay Bridge, and hosts a civilian population along with a small Coast Guard station. Treasure Island, an artificial island attached to Yerba Buena by a causeway, is a former Naval base with civilian housing located at its northern end. Alameda, an island directly off the coast of Oakland, is accessible via a number of causeways and has a sizable collection of examples of Victorian and Queen Anne architecture.

The islands of the San Francisco Bay, as can be seen, are quite varied. Many Bay Area residents are only capable of naming a handful of the 18 islands, so prepare to impress people with your local knowledge. The varied residences and nature preserves on the islands of San Francisco bay also provide an interesting cross section of Bay Area life, both human and animal.

Military ribbons are awarded to recognize successful completion of a standard service, such as training, deployment, or special programs. A service ribbon is different from a military badge or medal given for a single act of bravery or performance. Military ribbons are narrow bars of metal covered in a swath of fabric. The color and width of the ribbon's stripes indicate what the metal means and from which military division it was received.

Military ribbons are pinned to the breast of the uniform and derived from the flags knights used to carry into battle, whose bright colors showed the purpose of each battalion. Originally, ribbons were worn in place of heavy medals strung around the neck. Now, the miniaturized decorations are usually "ribbon only," worn alone or with accompanying medals. Each military division, the Army, Air Force, Navy, Marines and Coast Guard, awards its own set of ribbons, yet they have common purposes. Less common are unit ribbons awarded to an entire battalion.

Some types of military ribbons distinguish those who have successfully completed a deployment. This period can be a few months in unusual circumstances or a few years of standard deployment. For example, the Army, Navy, and Marines award an Overseas Service Ribbon to those who have completed a Tour of Duty of 2-3 years outside the continental United States. General deployment ribbons also include the Air Force's Expeditionary Service Ribbon or Arctic Service Ribbon for deployment associated with exceptional challenges.

Another category of military ribbons is for those who perform well in evaluations. These include ribbons for marksmanship, as some divisions recognize high scores on a weapons test with a rifle or pistol. Those who complete training with above-average performance, or graduate with satisfactory marks from a program will receive a decoration, such as the Marine Corps Drill Instruction Ribbon. Even instructors working with recruitment or training are eligible to receive a Recruiting Service Ribbon from the Marines, Navy, and Air Force for a three year Tour of Duty.

Military ribbons differentiate between combat and non-combat services. The Navy and Marines award a Combat Action Ribbon to those who served in a declared combat zone for a certain length of time. Yet special kinds of non-combat service are also recognized, such as by Special Operations officers or members of the Coast Guard who enforce the law in difficult circumstances such as terrorism attacks.

The California Conservation Corps (CCC) is a service organization in the American state of California. Members of the CCC participate in a wide range of community service activities, ranging from trail clearing in State Parks to emergency response. Membership in the Corps is open to individuals between 18-25 years of age who are ready to commit to some serious hard work.

The organization was founded in 1976, and modeled after the Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s. The Civilian Conservation Corps put young men to work during the Great Depression across the United States. This organization is credited with many excellent projects, ranging from accommodations in National Parks to the construction of roads in cities across the nation. The founders of the California Conservation Corps seized upon the model of hard work to benefit society and decided to apply it in California.

Members of the CCC typically serve for one year, although tours can be expanded or shortened, depending on need. The California Conservation Corps offers full service residential programs, for people who want more structure, and also allows Corps members to commute to work from private homes. In all cases, the California Conservation Corps offers vocational training in a wide range of fields including environmental conservation, fire response, construction, and park maintenance. After graduating, members can market their experience when applying for jobs.

If a community sees the need for the California Conservation Corps team, it can apply to the organization, specifying the type of project and requesting a crew. Most crews have 10-15 individuals, who are fully equipped with the tools and equipment they need. Crews might restore trails in parks, help count salmon for survey purposes, repair roads, or build homes for people in need. The California Conservation Corps also responds to major emergencies such as fires, earthquakes, and floods, providing on the ground labor to help communities around the state.

People who join the Corps can participate in special programs like the Backcountry Program, which sends teams out to the wilderness to work on trails in fair weather. Candidates can also apply for international exchanges all over the world, in which CCC members help out with things like disaster response and habitat restoration. After graduation, members of Corps may be eligible for civil service jobs or special scholarships if they want to pursue higher education.

The work of the California Conservation Corps is supported by the CCC Foundation, a partner organization which helps to make up funding shortfalls. The Foundation also funds scholarships and other opportunities for Corps members. The Foundation was created in 1988, out of concerns that the CCC might not be able to continue otherwise.

The California Native Plant Society (CNPS) is an organization which promotes conservation, appreciation, and study of native plant species in the American state of California in a variety of ways. Membership in the Society is welcome to anyone, and members can participate in the mission of the organization in a variety of settings. Amateurs often work right alongside with professionals to document and preserve native vegetation in California, and to educate the general public about the wide range of amazing native plant species which can be found throughout the state in many different ecosystems.

The organization was founded in the East Bay Area in 1965, and it quickly expanded to become statewide. Members pay annual dues to the California Native Plant Society to support the various goals and projects of the organization. The California Native Plant Society is organized into 32 local chapters; members usually work with their regional chapter, although they may assist or cooperate with other chapters on major projects. The organization also works with other botanical and environmental groups on major projects which share the common goal of preserving California's natural habitat.

There are several aspects to the California Native Plant Society. One of the major goals of the organization is to increase appreciation for and understanding of native plants in California. The group studies plant populations across the state extensively to this end, and it also leads nature walks, workshops, and other educational activities for the general public to increase native plant awareness. Many botanical gardens in California have large native plant collections, thanks to the work of California Native Plant Society chapters.

In addition, the California Native Plant Society has a large conservation program. The group works to increase native plant populations around the state by eradicating invasive species on both public and private lands. The group also acts to preserve plant habitats, and it supports legislation which promotes native species conservation. Members may work on plant surveys, take to the field to eradicate invasive species, or establish personal gardens of native plants. The group also works on land use management, and encourages a value for natural landscapes.

Because California is such a big state, there are a number of different plant habitats, ranging from redwood forests to sand dunes. The California Native Plant Society surveys and researches all of these areas, with biologists studying unique environments like the pygmy forest, the desert, and the high mountains. These varying vegetated areas are an important part of California ecology, and the CNPS works to ensure that they will be available for future generations to study and appreciate.

The Holy God having by a long and Continual Series of his Afflictive dispensations in and by the present Warr with the Heathen Natives of this land, written and brought to pass bitter things against his own Covenant people in this wilderness, yet so that we evidently discern that in the midst of his judgments he hath remembered mercy, having remembered his Footstool in the day of his sore displeasure against us for our sins, with many singular Intimations of his Fatherly Compassion, and regard; reserving many of our Towns from Desolation Threatened, and attempted by the Enemy, and giving us especially of late with many of our Confederates many signal Advantages against them, without such Disadvantage to ourselves as formerly we have been sensible of, if it be the Lord's mercy that we are not consumed, It certainly bespeaks our positive Thankfulness, when our Enemies are in any measure disappointed or destroyed; and fearing the Lord should take notice under so many Intimations of his returning mercy, we should be found an Insensible people, as not standing before Him with Thanksgiving, as well as lading him with our Complaints in the time of pressing Afflictions:

The Council has thought meet to appoint and set apart the 29th day of this instant June, as a day of Solemn Thanksgiving and praise to God for such his Goodness and Favour, many Particulars of which mercy might be Instanced, but we doubt not those who are sensible of God's Afflictions, have been as diligent to espy him returning to us; and that the Lord may behold us as a People offering Praise and thereby glorifying Him; the Council doth commend it to the Respective Ministers, Elders and people of this Jurisdiction; Solemnly and seriously to keep the same Beseeching that being persuaded by the mercies of God we may all, even this whole people offer up our bodies and souls as a living and acceptable Service unto God by Jesus Christ.

In the United States, you cannot participate in elections if you are not a registered voter. Most states make it very easy for citizens to register to vote, since they want to encourage all eligible voters to take part in the democratic process. The procedure which allows a citizen to register to vote is essentially the same in all states, although there may be some small differences.

Before you register to vote, determine whether or not you are eligible to vote. You must be an American citizen to vote in the United States, and you must also be 18 years of age or older at the time of the election. In some states, you cannot be a convicted felon. You must also be a resident of the county in which you are registering to vote. You must register to vote 15 days before an election in most states, although this requirement varies widely, from 10-30 days depending on the region.

After you have determined that you are eligible to vote, pick up a voter registration form. These forms are available in many places, including libraries, post offices, and the department of motor vehicles. For non-English speakers, voter registration forms in other languages are provided. Many states also offer voter registration materials online, through the office of the secretary of state. In addition, voter outreach organizations provide voter registration forms, if you are having difficulty finding one.

Fill out all of the information on the voter registration form. The form asks for your address and party affiliation. It will also ask for proof of identity, and it will have a space for a signature. Mail the voter registration, and look for a registration card in two to four weeks. If you do not receive such a card after you register to vote, contact your county clerk or registrar of voters to make sure that you are listed on the rolls.

You will need to re-register to vote if you change your name, political affiliation, or address. In some cases, you can change this information by calling the county clerk. In other instances, you may find it easier to fill out a new voter registration form.

Some states allow people to register to vote at the polling place. In this instance, bring proof of your residence, along with a valid identification. You will receive a provisional ballot, and you can check back with the registrar of voters or the county clerk later to make sure that your registration was accepted.

It is very easy to register to vote in the United States. If you know someone who is eligible but not registered to vote, encourage them to do so today.

College education in the United States can be extremely expensive, especially if a student attends a private university or wishes to pursue graduate work. A perceived inability to afford college should never stop a student from pursuing what he or she wants, however. With some work, it is possible to afford college in the United States, by seeking out ways to make it less expensive, and by finding funding to assist students. Although a student may have to incur debt to go to college, it is possible to afford college, no matter what economic class the student comes form.

One of the best ways to afford college is to make college less expensive. Each US state has a individual state college and university system. Many of these schools are of very high quality, and they are also relatively inexpensive, because they are supported through state funding. State schools with different areas of focus can be found for students looking to pursue a specific degree, and the schools often offer affordable housing as well.

However, a student should not feel limited to state college if he or she wants to go somewhere else. Once accepted at a college, students are offered a financial aid package. The package indicates how much money the college will offer the student if he or she chooses to pursue an education there. Students should not view financial aid as a final offer, however, especially if they are academically talented. By working with the financial aid office and pursuing outside avenues of a funding, a student should be able to afford college.

The Federal Government offers numerous loans and grants to help Americans afford college. To be eligible, a student must fill out the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). This form is also transmitted to the financial aid office, and is used to determine how much money a college offers a student. By filling out a FAFSA, students are placed into consideration for loans, grants, and scholarships. In addition, many states offer individual funding programs to students.

Scholarships and grants are, of course, preferable to loans. Students can get information about college-specific scholarships which may help them afford college through the student aid office. They can also apply for national scholarship and grant programs. Several organizations maintain extensive scholarship listings online to help students afford college.

Finally, some students may need to take out student loans to afford college. The best loans are those which are offered through the Federal government, because they have extremely low interest rates and very forgiving repayment programs. If a student is not eligible for Federal aid and is forced to pursue a private lender, caution should be taken when applying for loans. The paperwork should be read completely, so that the student understands the interest rate being offered and the repayment plan. Some loan programs prey on college students, and seeking out the advice of a financial aid officer or financial expert may be a good idea.

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is an agency of the United States government which focuses on promoting a competitive market and protecting consumers from false advertising and unfair business practices. The FTC establishes trade rules which the relevant industries must abide by, and can bring suit in Federal court against offenders who violate trade rules or Federal law. The primary focus of the FTC is regulating interstate commerce. The agency, founded in 1915, is headed by five commissioners and headquartered in Washington, D.C. Although the FTC cannot punish offenders directly, it can issue orders of compliance and ultimately sue businesses which continue to flout trade rules.

Numerous measures are undertaken to ensure a fair and free market. The FTC reviews potential major business mergers, for example, to make sure that the merger will not form a monopoly or dominate the market for that particular product or service. The FTC also regulates advertising, and heavily prosecutes businesses which engage in false advertising, as this can be harmful to the running of an unobstructed market. In addition, the FTC monitors certain industries which are prone to repeat offenses, such as the telemarketing and funeral industries. As part of the anti-trust mission of the FTC, the agency cracks down on price fixing schemes, monopolies, and other questionable business practices.

In addition to promoting a healthy market, the FTC also protects consumers. A section of the FTC's staff handles consumer complaints about faulty advertising and handles issues with franchising and business opportunities. The FTC oversees the enforcement of the Fair Credit Reporting Act, and also regulates e-commerce. In addition, the FTC has an education mission, aimed at empowering consumers so that they can make informed choices about purchases while also protecting their identities and security. The FTC also oversees issues such as product labeling, including claims about the content and efficacy of products other than drugs, which are regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Many small businesses are also protected tangentially by the FTC. For example, the FTC has trade rules for franchise businesses which force the parent company to fully disclose all information pertaining to the business. The FTC's activities in the e-commerce sector have also been beneficial for small businesses. Consumers who feel that they are victims of false advertising or have been otherwise violated should file a claim with the FTC, as should businesses which suspect other companies of potentially harmful business practices.

If you’re planning a trip to Montgomery, Alabama, you’ll be pleased to learn that this beautiful city offers a number of visitor attractions. As the capital of Alabama, Montgomery is known for its southern hospitality.

Although Montgomery was once known as the capital of the Confederacy, the city became the center of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s. Montgomery was the site of the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. served as pastor the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church from 1954 to 1960. You can learn more about the city’s role in promoting racial equality by visiting the Civil Rights Memorial Center in downtown Montgomery.

If you love animals, you’ll want to stop at the Montgomery Zoo. This charming local attraction features more than 700 animals from five different continents. All animals are housed in “barrier free” habitats to allow you to observe them in surroundings that are as natural as possible. Guided tours of the zoo are available for groups of up to 30 people. In addition, the Mann Wildlife Learning Museum provides detailed information on the state’s conservation efforts.

The Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts has been promoting the visual arts in Montgomery for more than 70 years and is the fifth largest museum of its kind in the world. This impressive museum has an extensive collection of American art, including a number of paintings depicting the history of the south. This collection of regional art provides a unique look at the cultural heritage of the city’s residents and is a must-see attraction for anyone interested in the “outsider art” movement.

Baseball fans will want to see the Montgomery Biscuits in action while visiting the city. This popular Class AA Southern League team is an affiliate of the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. Games are played in the Montgomery Riverwalk Stadium, a facility with a seating capacity of approximately 7,000.

Montgomery’s mild climate and beautiful weather make it the perfect location for outdoor enthusiasts. After touring Montgomery’s most popular attractions, feel free to relax with a picnic lunch in one of the city’s 90 parks. There are also a number of golf courses and tennis courts for you to enjoy.

If you’re looking for a unique souvenir to commemorate your visit to Montgomery, stop by Flea Market Montgomery. This 75,000 square foot flea market offers an impressive array of trinkets and treasures for every taste. In fact, Flea Market Montgomery proudly proclaims it’s “just like a mini-mall.”

As part of the protections built within our judicial system, attorneys are required to be recognized members of a local bar association as well as be recognized by the courts. Does this preclude any US attorney from being about to practice law outside of his or her local jurisdiction? Actually, it does not. Here are some examples of ways that any US attorney can comply with local requirements and practice law anywhere in the United States.

Local courts of jurisdiction are responsible for setting the qualifications of who may be allowed to engage in law practice within the geographic area that court oversees. Usually, if a US attorney wishes to plead cases in another court within the same state, the process is a very simple one. Many courts will recognize the attorney based on a letter of confirmation from the sister court regarding the good standing of the US attorney. Others may not require the letter of confirmation, but will expect the lawyer to present a certificate that serves as evidence that he or she is a recognized attorney by another court within the state.

For any US attorney that wishes to practice law outside of his or her home state of jurisdiction, the process becomes a little more complicated. Most courts will require the certificate or a letter confirming the status of the US attorney. Along with that evidence, an affidavit from a locally recognized attorney may be needed, as well as taking a formal oath of admission to the court. Some courts will allow what is called Pro Hac Vice admission, which simply means the attorney presents sufficient information to allow the court to confirm his or her status, and allows the US attorney to function within the jurisdiction of the court. Often, the Pro Hac Vice is invoked in emergency situations and may be revoked by the court at a later date. It usually does not confer a permanent status to be recognized by the court.

The situation is different for United States attorneys that are full time government attorneys. Any United States attorney in the employ of the federal government or any federal agency will have credential affirming his or her status. Presenting them to a local judge is all that is necessary to grant full access to any matter that may impact the interests of the federal government. This process was designed to curtail any set of circumstances where the legal system could be used to manipulate the government for personal gain, or to place the central government of the country into any situation where the security of the country would be placed in jeopardy.

For any US attorney wishing to practice in another jurisdiction, there are criteria to meet. A federal US attorney enjoys the simplest means of securing recognition by a local court. While the recognition process may seem a bit complicated or unnecessary to some people, it is important to remember that the process ensures that the attorneys who represent people in court have the basic skills needed to competently represent his of her client. By instituting this structure of checks and balances, it is a safe bet that any citizen of the United States will be able to receive professional counsel from any attorney recognized by any US attorney who meets those qualifications.